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      1. revascularization

        時間:2024-08-03 17:03:45 醫學畢業論文 我要投稿
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        revascularization

        畢業論文

        1
        How to Prevent Perioperative Myocardial Injury: the Conundrum Continues
        JianZhong Sun, MD, PhD; David Maguire, MD, Joseph Seltzer, MD, Zvi Grunwald, MD
        Department of Anesthesiology, Jefferson Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University.
        Philadelphia, PA, USA
        Introduction
        Perioperative myocardial injury (PMI), including myocardial ischemia, cardiac dysfunction,
        cardiac arrhythmias, myocardial infarction and cardiac arrest continues to be a major challenge to
        perioperative physicians because of its clinical and economic impact. Despite extensive clinical
        and basic research, the mechanisms responsible for PMI remain enigmatic. Currently, the
        predominant theories are that PMI may be caused by prolonged stress-induced myocardial
        ischemia or atherosclerotic plaques rupture or a combination of two. Clinically perioperative
        myocardial ischemia and infarction may present differently, pathologically they are all secondary
        to alterations of coronary plaque morphology and function or/and the loss balance between
        myocardial oxygen supply and demand. The potential triggers for PMI include extreme surgical
        stress, catecholamine release and inflammatory reaction. Our recent study demonstrated that
        catecholamine stimulation can aggravate myocardial injury by provoking inflammatory reaction
        and increasing myocardial apoptosis [1].
        Clinical strategies to prevent PMI have been evolving greatly. In 1977 Goldman and colleagues
        pioneered the concept of a risk index to account for the multifactorial nature of contributors to
        risk for cardiac morbidity [2], which has led to the landmark development in perioperative
        medicine, i.e., the ACC/AHA guidelines for perioperative cardiovascular evaluation for
        noncardiac surgery in 1996 and an update in 2002 [3]. However, due to the poor positive
        predictive value of non-invasive cardiac stress tests, the controversy about benefit of coronary
        revascularization before non-cardiac surgery and the considerable risk of coronary angiography
        and coronary revascularization in high-risk patients, perioperative physicians have been
        continuously searching for alternative approaches to prevent/reduce perioperative cardiac
        complications. In 1996, Mangano et al performed a randomized clinical trial to investigate the
        effect of β-blocker, atenolol, on patient outcomes and concluded that in patients with risk for
        coronary artery disease (CAD) who must undergo noncardiac surgery, treatment with atenolol
        during hospitalization can reduce mortality and the incidence of cardiovascular complications for
        as long as two years after surgery. In 2003, Poldermans et al provided evidence in a case-
        controlled study that statin use reduces perioperative mortality in patients undergoing major
        vascular surgery. These significant developments in perioperative medical therapy have shifted
        interest of perioperative cardiac care greatly, from risk stratification and potential coronary
        revascularization to risk modification with β-blockers or/and statins. Nevertheless, the debate and
        controversy exist in almost every aspect of clinical strategies to prevent PMI.
        Cardiac risk assessment
        1. ACC/AHA guideline update for perioperative cardiovascular evaluation for noncardiac surgery
        can help to stratify cardiac risk and it focused on preoperative testing to identify patients with
        significant CAD and subsequent coronary revascularization [3]. The guidelines are currently
        中華麻醉在線 http://www.csaol.cn 2007年9月
        2
        playing a major role in the field of perioperative medicine. However, the Guidelines rely on
        predominantly observational data and expert opinion because there were no randomized trials
        to support the process.
        2. Lee revised cardiac risk index, including high risk surgical procedure, history of CAD, history
        of CHF, history of CVA, preoperative insulin treatment and serum creatinine over 2.0mg/dl is
        a practical clinical risk index that physicians can use to facilitate risk estimation [4].
        Perioperative monitoring
        1. Le Manach et al proposed a different approach: monitoring perioperative cardiac troponin I
        (cTnI) concentrations and early institution of treatment for those patients with increased cTnI
        before it leads to irreversible necrosis. In their study, intense postoperative cTnI surveillance
        revealed two types of PMI according to time of appearance and rate of increase in cTnI: acute
        (24hr)
        increase of cTnI may lead to prolonged myocardial ischemia for later events [5].
        2. In the patients with cardiac surgery, Croal et al found that cTnI levels measured 24 hours after
        cardiac surgery predict short-, medium-, and long-term mortality and remain independently
        predictive when adjusted for all other potentially confounding variables, including operation
        complexity [6].
        Prophylactic coronary revascularization
        ACC/AHA guidelines recommend coronary revascularization only for subgroups of high-risk
        patients with unstable cardiac symptoms or those for whom coronary artery revascularization
        offers a long-term benefit.
        1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) before noncardiac surgery: Eagle et al have shown that
        among 1961 patients undergoing higher-risk surgery (involving the thorax, abdomen,
        vasculature, and head and neck), prior CABG was associated with fewer postoperative deaths
        and myocardial infarctions compared with medically managed CAD. Prior CABG was most
        protective in patients with advanced angina and/or multivessel CAD [7].
        2. Coronary revascularization before vascular surgery: However, in Coronary Artery
        Revascularization Prophylaxis trial, McFalls et al found that coronary artery revascularization
        (CABG or PCI) before elective vascular surgery in patients with stable CAD does not
        significantly alter the long-term outcome (survival rates) when compared to medical therapy
        and therefore coronary revascularization before elective vascular surgery among patients with
        stable cardiac symptoms cannot be recommended [8].
        3. CABG vs. percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) before vascular surgery: In the report by
        Ward et al [9], among patients receiving multivessel coronary artery revascularization as
        prophylaxis for elective vascular surgery, patients having a CABG had fewer myocardial
        infarctions and tended to spend less time in the hospital after the vascular operation than
        3
        patients having a PCI. More complete revascularization was accounted for the intergroup
        differences.
        4. CABG vs. coronary angioplasty before noncardiac surgery: In a randomized study, Hassan et
        al found that rates of myocardial infarction and death after noncardiac surgery are similarly
        low after CABG or coronary angioplasty in patients with stable and multivessel CAD [10].
        Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) in surgical patients
        1. Brief history of PTCA: PTCA was introduced by Gruntzing in 1977. In 1986, Puel and Sigwart
        deployed the first coronary stent to act as a scaffold to prevent vessel closure and to reduce
        the incidence of angiographic restenosis. By 1999, stenting composed 84.2% of all PCI.
        There are two types of stent: bare metal stents (BMS) and drug-eluting stents (DES,
        introduced in 2001). At present, 90% of all stents placed in the US and Europe are DES.
        Despite the enthusiasm that resulted with the advent of DES, incomplete endothelialization
        and stent thrombosis continue to plague these devices. Initial animal studies demonstrated
        complete endothelialization with BMS at 28 days, whereas DES uniformly showed
        incomplete healing at 180 days.
        2. PTCA and surgical complications: In 2000, Kaluza et al [11] first reported on 40 patients treated
        with BMS who underwent noncardiac surgery within

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